Diabetes mellitus is a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Chronically elevated blood glucose leads to debilitating complications: nephropathy, often necessitating dialysis or renal transplant; peripheral neuropathy; retinopathy leading to blindness; ulceration of the legs and feet, leading to amputation; fatty liver disease, sometimes progressing to cirrhosis; and vulnerability to coronary artery disease and myocardial infarction.
There are two primary types of diabetes. Type I, or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is due to autoimmune destruction of insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreatic islets. The onset of this disease is usually in childhood or adolescence. Treatment consists primarily of multiple daily injections of insulin, combined with frequent testing of blood glucose levels to guide adjustment of insulin doses, because excess insulin can cause hypoglycemia and consequent impairment of brain and other functions.
Type II, or noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) typically develops in adulthood. NIDDM is associated with resistance of glucose-utilizing tissues like adipose tissue, muscle, and liver, to the actions of insulin. Initially, the pancreatic islet beta cells compensate by secreting excess insulin. Eventual islet failure results in decompensation and chronic hyperglycemia. Conversely, moderate islet insufficiency can precede or coincide with peripheral insulin resistance. There are several classes of drugs that are useful for treatment of NIDDM: 1) insulin releasers, which directly stimulate insulin release, carrying the risk of hypoglycemia; 2) prandial insulin releasers, which potentiate glucose-induced insulin secretion, and must be taken before each meal; 3) biguanides, including metformin, which attenuate hepatic gluconeogenesis (which is paradoxically elevated in diabetes); 4) insulin sensitizers, for example the thiazolidinedione derivatives rosiglitazone and pioglitazone, which improve peripheral responsiveness to insulin, but which have side effects like weight gain, edema, and occasional liver toxicity; 5) insulin injections, which are often necessary in the later stages of NIDDM when the islets have failed under chronic hyperstimulation.
Insulin resistance can also occur without marked hyperglycemia, and is generally associated with atherosclerosis, obesity, hyperlipidemia, and essential hypertension. This cluster of abnormalities constitutes the “metabolic syndrome” or “insulin resistance syndrome”. Insulin resistance is also associated with fatty liver, which can progress to chronic inflammation (NASH; “nonalcoholic steatohepatitis”), fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Cumulatively, insulin resistance syndromes, including but not limited to diabetes, underlie many of the major causes of morbidity and death of people over age 40.
Despite the existence of such drugs, diabetes remains a major and growing public health problem. Late stage complications of diabetes consume a large proportion of national health care resources. There is a need for new orally active therapeutic agents which effectively address the primary defects of insulin resistance and islet failure with fewer or milder side effects than existing drugs.
Currently there are no safe and effective treatments for fatty liver disease. Therefore such a treatment would be of value in treating this condition.
WO 02/100341 (Wellstat Therapeutics Corp.) discloses certain hydroxyamide-substituted compounds and amide-substituted compounds, for example 4-(3-(2,6-Dimethylbenzyloxy)phenyl)-4-oxobutyramide.